• Justice approach to ethical decision making
• Compensatory justice example
• Justice approach to ethics
• Business Law Essay example

Characteristics of Genuine Rights

The four fundamental freedoms as provided by the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms include:

1. Freedom of conscience and religion;
2. Freedom of thought, belief, opinion and expression, including freedom of the press and other communication media;
3. Freedom of peaceful assembly; and
4. Freedom of association (Canadian Charter of rights and Freedoms, Sec 2).

The first two contains the liberty of an individual to exercise their mental faculties and translate the resulting ideas into words and action. In contrast to other animals, human beings sustain their lives through deliberate, purposeful, and rational actions. This right must therefore be included in the right to liberty.

The last two principles contain right to exercise a person’s liberty in association with others. Thus, it would rather be strange is an individual was permitted to say whatever he or she felt like of did whatever they wished, so long as they did this in isolation [without association with anybody else].

When two or more individuals assemble with others, they-in an individual capacity as individuals-exercise their separate rights of liberty, and therefore there is no any new right that is accorded applying to the group.

The right to liberty necessarily includes the right to associate and contract with others; this includes the right of an individual or a group of persons to enter into voluntary agreements with intent of exchanging goods or services, or for mutual efforts that aims at achieving a common goal.

This cannot be effective unless there is a legal framework that permits persons to reliably expect the full achievement of contractual exchanges they negotiate with other individuals.

This right is intertwined with right to life and liberty and thus it would be contradictory to concede these rights without providing the right to associate and contract with others.

Justice ethics theory and definition

When exercising the right to life and liberty in a natural course, individuals often accumulate property of some sort, even if it is merely basic needs such as food and clothes.

Depriving them of this property is equivalent to depriving them of that portion of life that they spend in the process of acquiring this property. Therefore, the last two principles can be integrated to form the category of economic rights.

Treatment of Economic Rights by the Courts

Section 7 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms guarantees “the right to life, liberty and security of individuals and that the right not to be deprived thereof except in accordance with the principles of fundamental justice”.

However, on many occasions, the Supreme court of Canada has repeatedly held that the charter does not include any economic rights among the rights guaranteed by section 7. For instance, in 2005, the Chaoulli decision was held that:

The argument that “liberty” includes freedom of contract…is novel in Canada, where economic rights are not included in the Canadian Charter…” Chaoulli v. Quebec (2005)

The Irwin Toy ruling also demonstrated a decidedly negative attitude of courts towards the presence of and application of economic rights.

There is no any satisfactory explanation that has been provided by the Canadian courts for their apparent contempt towards the existence and application of economic rights.

After the enactment of the Charter in 1982 and its coming into effect in 1985, the word Liberty was not clearly defined. The Charter therefore gave courts a blank sheet of paper to write on. It did not have any scheme of object as to how liberty was to be narrowed down from its broadest meaning, or its ordinary meaning.

As a matter of fact, there is no any part of the Charter that indicates that freedom of property and contract should not form part of liberty. However, the courts have imposed such bottlenecks upon themselves.

The scheme of the Charter of rights and Freedoms was supposed to be straightforward. Lawmakers are therefore supposed to respect these rights and hence refrain from enacting laws that violate these freedoms.

In the event that a law was enacted and infringed on the guaranteed rights, there is still a chance that such laws could be found constitutional if they were in accordance with other requirements of the charter, i.e. the provisions of section 1; which states that:

“The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms guarantees the rights and freedoms set out in it subject only to such reasonable limits prescribed by law as can be demonstrably justified in a free and democratic society” (Beaudoin & Ratushny, 1989).

Therefore, any law enacted that violated this section guarantees life, liberty or security of a person would have to pass the test as ruled by the court: whether it was within a reasonable limit that could be justifiable in a free and democratic society.

Inhibitive Socio-Economic Litigation

Within or without the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, there is no explicit right to publicly funded legal litigation aid under the Canadian Charter of Rights and freedoms.

However, the Supreme Court has recognized the right to state-funded legal counsel where it is necessary to ensure that the decision impacting on a person’s life, liberty and security is in accordance with the principles of fundamental justice.

In G. (J.) case, it was held that failure by the state to provide publicly funded legal representation in the child protection proceedings was an infringement of low-income parents’ security of a person under Section 7.

In the case, Jeanine Gordin faced the threat of losing parental custody of her children based on the evidence that her capacity as a parent was unfit as indicated in fifteen affidavits presented by three lawyers acting on behalf of the government.

The chief Justice ruled that ‘without the benefit of a counsel, the appellant would not have been able to effectively participate at the hearing… Thereby threatening to violate both the appellant and her children’s rights to security as provided by section 7.

Interests of Economically Powerful

The case of Khadr v. Canada (Prime Minister) sheds some light on how the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms can be subjectively interpreted to further the interests of economically powerful persons in the society and deprive the “ordinary” citizens of their rights.

The Facts

• Omar Khadr is a 15 year old Canadian citizen who was taken as a prisoner in Afghanistan by the American armed forces in 2007, as part of the military action against the Taliban and the Al-Qaeda terror group.
• Khadr was then taken to Guantanamo Bay Prison Camp.
• In 2003-2004, Khadir was interviewed by the officers form the Canadian Security Intelligence Service at the Bay for law enforcement reasons.
• Through interrogation, the officers were made aware of the fact that Mr. K had been subjected to sleep deprivation technique which is used by the US security officers to reduce the resistance of inmates to interrogation.

The Supreme Court of Canada held that the interrogation process used by the US forces at the bay was a clear violation Canada’s International Human Rights Obligations (Canada (Justice) v. Khadr, 2008).

The SCC ordered that, under s. 7 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, the Canadian government provide all materials and documents that may be relevant for the case to a Federal Court Judge.

The FCA upheld the order, holding that under section 7 of the Charter, Mr. Khadr’s rights had been breached during the interrogations by the Canadian security agents. The government then appealed this decision to the Supreme Court of Canada.

Decision

The Supreme Court of Canada unanimously ruled that under s.7 of the Charter, Mr. Khadr’s rights were breached during interrogations by the Canadian security agents at the Guantanamo Bay. Further, the court removed the original order requiring the Federal Court to repatriate Mr. K, transferring the mandate of the next course of action to the federal government.

The Supreme Court held that there was a strong link between the federal government’s involvement in an illegal interrogation process and the infringement on Mr. Khadr’s liberty and security. As such, Canada participated in contravention to its human rights obligations.

Mr. Khadr was a minor at the time of detention and was interrogated, without the service of his lawyer, by the Canadian security officials at the Bay on full knowledge that he had been subjected to sleep deprivation.

The court held that Mr. K’s repatriation to Canada would be a reasonable remedy for the breach of his rights, given that as he continued to stay at the bay his rights were being breached.

Discussion on Common Good Approach

The Omar Khadr issue and how it was handled presents a case of infringement of fundamental rights and freedom under the Charter of Rights and Freedoms section 7.

The fact that the accused was still a minor upon his capture presents another dimension of the case; child abuse and torture committed before the eyes of the world.

This case also reveals serious issues in legal institutions in Canada. The partisan stance taken by the Canadian Prime Minister on the case and the department of Justice regarding a person who was a minor (child) at the time he was incarcerated is a clear misinterpretation of the law and application of the law in a manner that favors certain factions at the expense of critical human rights.

The most alarming and disconcerting issue is the unwillingness of the Canadian Supreme Court to uphold and adhere to the rule of law, instead exercising only a supervisory role in legal matters that calls for its guidance in interpretation.

In the case, the decision made was unanimous, meaning that there was no even a single judge who bothered to write a dissenting point of argument.

This therefore reflects on a legal system that has deviated from its fundamental task of interpreting and implementing the rule of law and ensuring that the rights and freedoms of the Canadian citizens are upheld, and instead manipulated the loopholes in the Charter of Rights and Freedoms to provide justice in a skewed manner.

Conclusion of Justice and Fairness Essay

Courts in Canada have the mandate to interpret and apply essential rights for the existence of individuals; such rights as right to security and economic liberty.

These rights ought to be consistently aligned with international human rights, and with an all-inclusive approach to interpretation of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms in a manner that provides protection to all citizens irrespective of their economic or social status. These courts are also required to provide remedies to violations of social and economic rights.

However, there has been a myriad of accusations and counter-accusations on the Canadian Charter of rights and Freedom on its inability to address basic economic rights and its prohibitive litigation costs.

To some extent, we have found through this discussion that the Charter in itself fails to substantively define economic rights.

This is can create a loophole through which the judiciary can take advantages of the omission of express definition of this term to infringe on the rights and freedoms of the marginalized in the society. The case of Omar Khadr v. Prime Minister, presents a typical scenario under which the court has failed to give directions to the government about the rights of its citizens, and in the process giving the government the mandate to act on what it deems fit.

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References on Fairness & Justice in Business

1. Austin v. Goerz, (2007) BCCA 586 (CanLII)
2.  Beaudoin, G.A. & Ratushny, E. (1989). The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms 2nd ed., Carswell, Toronto.
3.  Canada (Prime Minister) v. Khadr, (2008).
4. Chaoulli v. Quebec (Attorney General), (2005). SCC 35.
5. Chapter 4. The Constitution of Canada.

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Importance of Property Rights Economics

Explain why protecting property rights is essential to a market economy. Marriage is commonly accompanied by bride price paid by either the groom or the groom’s family. This sort of payments has a great impact on the economic lives of couples.

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While marriage payments such as the bride price are not part of the marriage institution, one may see marriage itself as an inherent price. When a man and a woman agree to get married, they do so understanding the terms of commitment they are subjecting themselves to (Hammond, 2011).

These commitments are like the duties each is expected to perform, the free hand each will have with the common funds. However, an individual may think that marriage terms correspond to the bride price and have the same functions as the explicit price in other markets.

This paper seeks to come up with a theory of why people would prefer ceremonial marriage over common law relationships.

Common Law Relationships and Marriage

Common-law relationship can be described as the union of two people that has not been customarily formalized as required by the law. In a common law relationship, marriage agreement is usually followed by cohabitation.

Marriage on the other hand is a socially or religiously sanctioned union of persons committed to each other to form an economic and a familial bond. Most people would prefer marriage over common-law relationships.

Coase theorem tries to explain why many people would prefer marriage over common-law relationships (Hammond, 2011).

Coase Theorem

According to the Coase theorem, there is a conflict of property rights. Involved parties can negotiate or bargain beneficial terms for both parties than the outcome assigned to properties.

Coase theorem also emphasizes that, for an agreement to take place, these negotiations must be costless (Hovenkamp, 2009). However, if there are costs associated with negotiations, the outcome will be affected. Therefore, involved parties do not consider how the property rights are granted if they can produce a mutual advantageous outcome.

Unlike the common law relationship, marriage has commitment attached to it (Hovenkamp, 2009). This commitment is basically seen when the couples sign a commitment contract.

Economic Incentives

Unlike the common-law relationships, marriage as a social institution confers many rights, incentives (both practical and legal).

These incentives vary from state to state and they incentives include; government benefits such as the social security and disability benefit, employment benefits such as obtaining insurance benefits, death benefits such as counselling after-death procedures and exterminations, estate planning benefits, housing benefit, tax benefits among other incentives (Hovenkamp, 2009).

However the most common inventive that come alongside matrimony are increased financial stability and shared employment benefits.

Increased Financial Stability

Apart from the cost of a destination wedding, Marriage matrimony can double the couples earning power overnight. Marriage creates additional opportunities by lowering cost of expenses (Hammond, 2011).

While marriage should not be perceived as quick way to gain riches, it has more economic advantages than disadvantages. When spouses come together through a marriage contract they will have high earning power.

Married spouses are in a better position to support their partners when financial trouble strikes. This is one of the great benefits of having a marriage contract. When one partner is not in any income generating activity, a possibility of earning is always there (Matouschek & Rasul, 2008).

A share of employment Benefits

The most celebrated incentive of marriage agreements is the easy and instant access to employee health benefit plan. Marriage is considered to be one on the few events that don’t require long waiting to process medical covers.

The registration process, gaining life, disability and health coverage may be possible within 30 days of the oaths. When both parties are covered, merging their medical covers offer a greater saving advantage.

Most insurance companies offer aggressive discounts to their employees. Therefore, married couples have a greater bargaining advantage to get these discounts (Hovenkamp, 2009).

Marriage has a good outcome. It delivers the expectation of the parties involved. When couples marry, their economic expectation is it to give birth to children who will take care of their financial life when they are old.

Similar to business firms, the family is treated as a productive enterprise in the new home economics. The family pools inputs to produce sales for the market for its own for its own consumption (Matouschek & Rasul, 2008).

Children are considered to be both durable consumer goods and capital goods. Parents promote investment inhuman capital when they provide moral training, education and sustenance to their children.

Just like entrepreneurs, parents invest in their children with a great expectation of great returns in the future. When children go family business or firms or support their parents in their old age (Matouschek & Rasul, 2008).

When forming marriages, an economist assumes that equals are created in a competitive marketplace, equivalent to the matching of workers and employees in the labor market.

People choose to marry given the limitations of available partners to maximize on their effectiveness (Matouschek & Rasul, 2008).

Unlike in the common-law, there are no provisions for such utilities. People choose marriages if their expected nonmarket non-market income will yield the expected utilities.

Although most marriages are between a man and a woman and are sanctioned, neither of those conditions is essential.

How property laws have evolved to benefit both society and business

At the centre of every relationship and marriage practice lies the attempt by spouses to safeguard their children’s future in a secure environment.

Taking this into consideration, marriage is of greater advantage than the common-law relationships. This is because, although marriage comes with many responsibilities, it offers a greater advantage with the rising economic standard.

Incentives offered to the married people offer a greater advantage for couple to have better saving power hence financial stability.

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References  on Property Rights and Economic Growth

• Hammond, J. D. (2011). Strange Bedfellows: Fr. John A. Ryan and the Minimum Wage Movement. Journal of the History of Economic Thought, 33(4), 449
• Hovenkamp, H. (2009). The Coase theorem and Arthur Cecil pigou
• Matouschek, N., & Rasul, I. (2008). The economics of the marriage contract: Theories and evidence. Journal of Law and Economics, 51(1), 59-110.

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An efficient accounting system therefore plays a major role in running any type of corporation or company. Financial information helps interested players know the financial position of an organization.

Therefore to understand the purpose of accounting to organizations, it is important to first understand the different types of financial statements and how they work.

Financial Statement Analysis Paper

There are four basic types of financial statement organizations use to record day to day transactions. These statements include balance sheet, the income statement, the cash flows statement and retained earnings statement.

Each of this statement has its significance in the running of an organization’s day to day activity. They work together to show the general performance of an organization.

Financial statements also help the internal users such as employees and managers in many ways. The use of these statements and how they help both the external and internal is analyzed bellow.

The balance Sheet

A balance sheet is also referred to as a statement position. Balance sheet is a summary of financial balances of company. In a balance sheet, reports are added to a chart that shows liabilities and assets within a given period of time.

A balance sheet is classified in three main groups. These groups are the stockholder’s equity, assets and liabilities. In a balance sheet, assets have to be the same as the stockbroker’s equity and the liabilities at the end of a financial system. The main purpose of a balance sheet is to ensure that all figures are adding up in the long run.

The Income Statement

An income statement show a list of expenses spends on within a given period of time. The main expenses which include revenue are in depth broken down to show were the organization’s funds are going (Kimmel, et al, 2011).

An income statement is used to show whether an organization in succeeding or it is failing in its financial goals. The income statement reports the company’s operation profitability. An organization’s income statement do not show the investment transaction divided between the business and the stockbrokers. In this context, revenue is the selling of merchandise, lending of money and the renting of properties (Weygand, 2008).

Example of expenses is things such as delivery expenses, supplies of office stationaries, and telephone expenses among others.

Retained Earnings Statement

Retained earnings statement is used to show the amount retained in a given period of time and why they were retained. Looking at the retained earnings statement, an organization is able to see what a company has spent within a specific time frame.

This is a financial statement that lists the changes in retained earnings in the same period of time as the income statements. Retained earnings statements are derived from income statement, salary revenue, dividends, service revenue, etc. (Weygand, 2008).

Statement Cash Flows

Statement cash flow is divided into three sections. These sections are the investing activities, the operating activities and the financing activities. Statement cash flow give financial information about payments for the company and cash receipts. It also makes an organization aware of the net cash decrease and increase in a given period of time and the net cash at the end of the business period (Weygand, 2008).

A statement cash flow provides information on payments and cash receipts a company makes in a specific period of time. A statement cash flow also report on investment transactions (Weygand, 2008).

Internal Users

One may wonder why these statements are very important for an effective running of a business. These financial statements are very important for both the internal users of financial statements and the external users of financial statements (Jensen, 2009).

As much as the financial statements are useful to creditors and investors of a company, they are also important for employees and managers in the running of business.

Income statement is useful to managers since it shows the profits and loses made within a certain period of time. Internal users like company employees and managers use financial information to determine the current financial situation of their organization.

Financial statements help internal users to determine if they have enough money to pay stockholders, if their net income will help them maximize their potential among other financial factors (Jensen, 2009).

External Users

External users are potential investors who have an interested in investing in an organization and the creditors who lend an organization funds when needed.

The external users of financial statements use these statements to determine whether it is worth investing in a specific company. An income statement helps external financial statement user decide basing on prediction. Looking at these statements, eternal users are able to determine whether a company is worth investing into (Jensen, 2009).

A retained earnings statement helps external users determine their interests in a company. Some external users like growth while others like high pay outs. A balance sheet shows creditors the credit worthiness of a company.

The statement cash flows show the external users operating activities which are the most important resource. Investors would like to know what their money is being used for. They also want to know if they will get good returns after investing in an organization.

They can get this information only through accessing these financial statements (Jensen, 2009).

Conclusion financial statement analysis example report

From the analysis of this paper, the four financial statements are key for the growth of a company. Critiques will ask what make these reports important, and the answer is that all these financial statements interrelate to ensure companies work in an effective way.

Without these financial statements and reports, both the internal and external users cannot be able to determine the financial history of a company.

Financial statements also help investors and creditors know the right companies to invest in. Financial statement therefore summarizes a company’s economic situation. All financial statements are useful to both external and internal parties involved in the interest of the company.

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References on Example of Financial Statement Analysis Paper

• Jensen, B. (2009). Financial statements – The external user’s roadmap. Retrieved from http://EzineArticles.com/2991172 on November 12, 2013
• Kimmel, P. D., Weygand, J. J., & Kieso, D. E. (2011). Financial accounting: Tools for business decision making (6th Ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons
• Weygand, J.J. (2008). Financial Accounting 6th Edition

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Within this global warming composition, we’ll describe the reason why it takes place and just what the consequences tend to be. We’ll then add deterrence measures that need to be applied as quickly as possible.

Introduction on what Global Warming Entails

You most likely came across this particular phrase often, and you might still not understand what it indicates. It should be noted that global warming occurs because of the phenomenon nwn as the greenhouse effect.

Essentially, carbon-dioxide as well as other gases is usually held within the atmosphere. They can make the atmosphere denser as well as trap the atmospheric temperature. The actual heat level goes up, which can be referred to as global warming.

Take into account that the whole planet is impacted by this specific consequence, even places that the temperatures are exceptionally lower.

Factors that Cause Global Warming

There are two causes of global warming. Unfortunately, both of these are huge and they’ve an extreme impact on our planet. Moreover, they’ve been triggering climatic change since the beginning of the 20th century. These really are:

1. Factory & Industrial pollutants – Production facilities around the world have a damaging impact on environmental surroundings. Many of them generate CO2, particularly those which use a certain amount of heat as well as fumes. Additionally, the process of producing energy results the emission of CO2 gases.
2. Deforestation – Doing damage to forested acres all over the world, to be able to acquire solid wood as well as usable area is definitely the main reason behind climatic change. Every day, an incredible number of bushes are usually slashed and eliminated. Each one of these needs many years to grow, however many of us damage them within minutes.

Effects of Global Warming Essay

Global increased temperatures affect the whole planet and it also brings about numerous serious problems that are extremely hard to solve.

Whether or not all of us discontinue just about all Carbon dioxide emissions right now, the idea would not instantly stop global warming as well as its harmful outcomes.

1. Climate Change – Due to the greenhouse effect, the typical heat level will increase. This leads to elevated quantity of severe atmospheric conditions.
2. Human Health – Human beings will are afflicted by tropical illnesses as well as being hungry. This is taking place at this time, however in the near future, it will likely be raised.
3. Water levels rise up – As a result of increased temperatures, the Arctic and Antarctic polar caps melt. These are already melting even now. This is actually the key reason why the sea levels will likely be elevated.

Protection against the Global Warming

To avoid or at best decelerate global warming rates, there are several actions that ought to be undertaken.

Growing trees is the actual first and also the most significant approach. This implies that we need to discontinue doing damage to forested areas.

Minimizing Carbon dioxide pollutants within the environment. We must shut aged industrial facilities, the start using sustainable energy options, and lower the sheer numbers of automobiles.

Conclusion of Global Warming Essay

It is important to keep in mind that global warming or climatic change is taking place at this moment and also it should be halted.

It is not far too late in the event the whole of mankind begins safeguarding our planet. Otherwise, we have got absolutely no future.

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Smoking Essay Introduction

This is the introduction paragraph of the smoking essay. With an approximation of about 1 trillion sales from, cigarettes are single-most traded products in the world. Having a global sale of more than 400 million USD, cigarettes are known to be the world’s largest industries.

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Over the years, smoking cigarettes in public has been considered to be a very controversial issue. However, many people are unaware of the ban on smoking cigarettes in public places.

People are also not aware of the effects of smoking in these public places and why it is important to solve this issue of smoking cigarettes in public places.

History of the smoking ban

During his short reign as Pope, Urban VII gave out the first smoking ban in 1590. Anyone who was caught chewing or smoking tobacco near a church was excommunicated.

It was until the twentieth century when people started realizing the health effects of chewing or smoking tobacco. At this point in time, cigarettes started providing a separate smoking location for smokers.

This was a measure taken so as to reduce exposure of non-smokers to the dangers of smoking. California was the first state to issue a smoking ban in restaurants in the 1990s.

Cities around the world started practicing the smoking ban, particularly in public places since then. In fact, more than 30 states have low that forbid people to smoke in public places.

Within the last decade, the regulation on smoking in public places has become a top priority for people to have a strong opinion on this issue (Wing et al. 2012). As many people begin to feel that smoking in public places to be right, others feel that smoking has put the society and the economy at risk.

Why Ban Smoking in Public places – Smoking should be illegal

In the present society, many people are affected by cigarette smoking in public places. Smokers feel that the ban on smoking in public is an action aimed at away their rights.

For those who feel they have freedom, they smoke wherever they want. Almost 46.6 million people smoke a cigarette in the US alone.

Although tobacco pipes and cigars have various health consequences, smokers believe that by smoking cigarettes, they are able to get an advantage of the “calming effect” of a cigarette (Wing et al. 2012).

On the other hand, non-smokers feel that their rights are violated through the public smoking of cigarettes. Therefore, non-smokers choose to be healthy as they can by not inhaling the carcinogens in cigarettes in pipes and cigars.

By not smoking, non-smokers do not infringe on the health of smokers when they are in public places.

Effects of Smoking on Health

Medical studies have revealed that smoking does not only affect the health conditions of the smoker but also of those people around them. As a result, many people feel that the ban on public smoking would serve the best interest of both the smoker and the people around them (Wing et al. 2012).

Therefore, many people advocate for the ban of smoking in public places. Although in recent times there has been a wide argument over this matter, I strongly agree there is a need to effectively cab the smoking in public area.

Over the years, smoking has been known to be the leading course of death. Each year cigarette smoking is known to kill up to about half a million people in America alone.

To add on that many more people suffer from cigarette smoking-related illnesses due to exposure to secondhand smoke. The effect of smoking is mainly related to an individual’s health (Wing et al. 2012).

However, there are others that people often do not seem to realize. Therefore, according to me, there are four major effects of an individual’s health, affect the reproductive system, those who are around them and most importantly on their pockets.

Whether one is a smoker or not, it is important to know what effects cigarette smoking has on an individual (Meyers et al. 2009).

Health Effects of Smoking

There is an increasing concern related to the effects of cigarette smoking to a person’s body. The most common are heart disease and lung disease.

Smoking has serious effects on the proper functioning of the lungs when carbon monoxide replaces the oxygen we breathe (Wing et al. 2012).

Damaging lung tissues, carbon monoxide impairs the ability of lungs to take in oxygen. Since a smoker’s lung has a decreased flow of blood, it robs the lungs and body tissues oxygen and nutrients.

Improper functioning of the lungs leads to a lung disease that eventually may lead to lung cancer when not controlled.

When smoking, the rate of heart bits raise and does not return to normal unless the smoking is stopped. Consistent smoking increases blood pressure which in turn leads to heart disease.

Smoking Effects on the Reproduction System

Smoking virtually causes problems in all aspects of the reproductive system of a woman. A woman who smokes is subject to having difficulties when conceiving, experiencing earlier menopause.

Women smokers cannot respond to infertility treatment. They also are at greater risk if having vulvar and cervical cancer (Dechanet et al 2011).

Some of the effects related to the female reproductive system may include: reduced fertility, menstrual cycle irregularities such as menstrual cramps and the absence of menstruation, their menopause come one or two years earlier, cervix and vulva cancer.

Smokers aged above 35 years, take contraceptive pills. Therefore, they are at a high of heart attack and stroke. The smoking of cigarettes is commonly associated with an increased rate of infertility.

Infertility for women who are attempting to be pregnant for the first time is referred to as primary infertility while for the women who have been previously pregnant is referred to as secondary infertility.

Smoking women respond poorly to in vitro fertilization (Dechanet et al 2011). Therefore, they have a high-risk miscarriage and ectopic pregnancy.  Ectopic pregnancy usually occurs when eggs implant and begin and grow in the fallopian tube and outside the uterus.

The embryo needs to be removed surgically so that the damaged tubes are repaired (Stampfli & Anderson 2009).

Effect of smoking on Other People

Smokers not only harm their own health but also the health of people around them. Children, whose parents consistently smoke at home, have high chances of developing respiratory complications and diseases.

These mainly affect the infants whose respiratory systems have not fully developed. Medical practitioners and researchers have confirmed that lung tissues of young children are weaker.

Young children are always subjected to respiratory complications when subjected to cigarette smoke. Therefore, the younger the child, the more severe the effect with the increasing does of exposure (Wing et al. 2012).

Financial & Economic Effects of Smoking

Most people tend to forget the financial effect of smoking. When an individual continuously smokes, s/he with the money that could have been used to pay the daily life necessities (Meyers et al. 2009).

For instance, with these tough economic times, fuel prices have reached a high of 5 USD per gallon. Cigarette industries have to make up for the increasing cost. Therefore, if a person smokes a pack of Pall Mall cigarettes a day, it will cost up to about 5 USD.

These translate to a total of 1,825 USD per day (Wing et al. 2012). This is a huge amount of money to waste on cigarettes and can, therefore, be used to something better to improve the life of an individual better than smoking.

There are many reasons for the need to ban the smoking of cigarettes in public areas. The ban on public smoking appears to significantly reduce the risks of heart problems, particularly to non-smokers and younger individuals. Researchers have found out that, the ban of smoking in public places can reduce the number of heart attacks by 26 percent.

According to David Mayer, the low breathing of cigarette smoke can increase the risk of a heart attack. In regard to Mayer’s perspective on the effects of smoking in public places, public smoking bans can efficiently reduce heart attacks (Stampfli & Anderson 2009).

Theoretically, this ban can also help in the reduction of emphysema and lung cancer. These are diseases that develop more slowly the heart attack. Interestingly, the public smoking ban has a stronger effect in the reduction of heart attacks in women than in younger individuals.

This is because younger people frequently tend to pay a visit to clubs, bars, and restaurants.

Smoking Essay Conclusion

Ban of cigarette smoking is a controversial issue in the society we live in today. Not every solution prescribed concerning cigarette smoking will make people’s lives better.

The ban on smoking in public will save many lives by reducing the known carcinogens in the air. Legalizing the smoking in public place ban will greatly improve the health of millions of people affected by cigarette smoking without their knowledge.

With these negative effects cigarettes have on both the smokers and the people around them, there is a need for governments to set up a law that prohibits people from smoking in the public. Institutions should also be set to rehabilitate addicted smokers.

These institutions should also be set up to educate the public on the dangers of not only smoking in the public but also the adverse effects that smoking has on their bodies.

References on Smoking Essay Causes and Effects

• Dechanet, C., Anahory, T., Daude, J. M., Quantin, X., Reitman, L., Hamamah, S., & Dechaud, H. (2011). Effects of cigarette smoking on reproduction. Human reproduction update, 17(1), 76-95.
• Meyers, D. G., Neuberger, J. S., & He, J. (2009). Cardiovascular effect of bans on smoking in public places a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 54(14), 1249-1255.
• Stampfli, M. R., & Anderson, G. P. (2009). How cigarette smoke skews immune responses to promote infection, lung disease and cancer. Nature Reviews Immunology, 9(5), 377-384
• Wing, V. C., Moss, T. G., Rabin, R. A., & George, T. P. (2012). Effects of cigarette smoking status on delay discounting in schizophrenia and healthy controls. Addictive behaviors, 37(1), 67-72.

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Integrated DEP/GARD Logistics Management

The increased pace of productive systems development has increased the emphasis on improved quality of products and services. However, the matching competition in the market pace has limited the differentiation potential based on product or service quality. This has made companies to seek alternative ways of value addition to their products.
Activities such as customized services, information timing, inventory management and customer satisfaction have earned an important place in the supply chain cycle. Bowersox et al. (2013) opine that firms that have perfect knowledge on efficient integration of the core competence of their supply chains are competitively positioned to achieve better results and sustain their competitive advantage.
As such, the authors point out that logistics play a central role in differentiating companies in terms of their supply of products and services to customers (Bowersox et al. 2013). In answering the questions related to the case study, this paper uses logistics management and customer service theoretical framework.

The Importance of B2B Logistics Customer Service

In a competitive B2B operating environment, an efficient logistics system can present a sustainable competitive advantage that will ensure that a supplier continues to operate profitably (Christopher 2010). Since the logistics cycle involves a wide range of activities from raw materials acquisition to the final delivery of products to customers, the system is a central focus of an organization.
Logistics involves building a system of customer requirements that results into fulfilling these requirements and thus a stronger relationship between the business and its customers (Ellinger & Chapman 2011).
Building a strong relationship between two parties requires a clear understanding of the benefits that both parties will achieve through the relationship. Efficient logistics customer service ensures that customers’ needs are well taken care of, and this often entails making available required products and services to customers in appropriate location in timely manner.
Thus, a logistics customer service system provides an outline of the physical movement of materials from the supplier to the end user as well as movement of information and payments in a reverse sense, creating a close relationship between the material supplier and the end user.
Strong relationships between a business and its customers ensures that there is efficient exchange of information regarding changes in market elements (Christopher 2010).
B2B logistics customer service allows an organization and its partners to integrate their external activities in a supply chain (Clements 2009). From the supply chain point of view, non-integrated chains often results in difficulties for customers.
For instance, lack of integrated supply chains between a supplier and a consumer can result in extremely high inventory levels, incomplete deliveries, and poor delivery timeliness. This increases costs for a procuring business in terms of high storage costs, increased emergency delivery costs and time wastage.
Suppliers also face difficulty when ascertaining when and how to produce due to lack of information regarding customer orders and needs as a result of limited integration of supply chains. This generally results in poor customer service, increased production and delivery costs and lower revenue turnover.
Conversely, integrated supply chains facilitates seamless flow of information along the supply chain from suppliers to consumers and reverse, increasing the quality and timeliness of decisions made (Clements 2009).
Due to cost reduction, enterprises are able to increase their competitiveness.
Lastly, customer service in supply chains adds value to the products and services delivered to consumers and in turn improving the performance of a business organization (Langfield-Smith & Smith 2005).
Within this context, a product is said to be of minimal or no value until it is delivered to the customer within the required specifications. Logistics customer experience involves complex activities influenced by factors such as frequency of product delivery, the safety of such products, the stock level and time interval within which the order is released.
All these activities are mixed to achieve excellent customer service. Gotzamani, Longinidis and Vouzas (2010) argues that companies that have their competition solely based on product characteristics are at a disadvantage relative to those businesses that increase value addition to their products through customer service.

Integrated DEP/GARD Supply Chain

Generally, a supply chain cycle consists of a system of activities, information and resources between a supplier and its customers involved in the movement of a product from its production to the end user (Waters 2010). The integrated supply chain for DEP and GARD begins with the procurement of raw materials from suppliers for the manufacture of polymers. These polymers are in turn the raw materials used by GARD in their manufacturing processes. DEP’s procurement department submits orders for raw materials from its suppliers. This is done electronically through facsimile and phone calls. The chemical compounds used as raw materials are delivered within 6 to 8 days of order submission. After the materials have been delivered to the company (DEP), the manufacturing division monitors these materials and schedules for production runs, based on the orders submitted by GARD through the marketing and distribution department (Coyle et al. 2009).

These polymers are in turn the raw materials used by GARD in their manufacturing processes. DEP’s procurement department submits orders for raw materials from its suppliers. This is done electronically through facsimile and phone calls. The chemical compounds used as raw materials are delivered within 6 to 8 days of order submission. After the materials have been delivered to the company (DEP), the manufacturing division monitors these materials and schedules for production runs, based on the orders submitted by GARD through the marketing and distribution department (Coyle et al. 2009).
The marketing department receives orders from customers on production through electronic means such as facsimile and phone calls. It takes the manufacturing division between 6 and 8 days to complete production of customer orders. The manufactured orders are shipped to the warehousing division situated within a short distance from the production division.

The warehousing division verifies that correct quantity and quality of orders received by customers are produced. Warehousing personnel will then prepare shipping documents, communicate with the customer and schedule the products for final shipment. It takes between three to eight days for the products leaving the manufacturing division to be shipped to GARD. Delivery of customer orders is done either through common carriers or private trucks owned by DEP. GARD submits her orders and expects delivery within ten days after submission. On the other hand, DEP takes a minimum of nine and a maximum of fourteen days to produce and deliver orders submitted by GARD.

Integrated DEP/GARD Supply Chain Diagram

Insert diagram here

Key Supply Chain Issues faced by DEP

The main aim of a supply chain cycle is to avail products and services to consumers at the right place and time and within the right price range. Although DEP has been in operation for decades, supplying GARD with raw materials for over fifteen years (Coyle et al. 2009), the company has inherent issues affecting its supply chain. The most pressing issue is the time taken to procure raw materials, produce orders and deliver them to their respective customers. The supply chain cycle for DEP is within the range of 15 to 22 days. The company takes between six to eight days to procure all the chemicals required for production of polymers. The least time taken to deliver raw materials is four days while the highest time taken to deliver chemical E and F is six days, with both having an allowance of 2 days (Coyle et al. 2009). Although the least time is four days, the company cannot commence production until all the essential raw materials are delivered. Upon the delivery of raw materials, the company takes seven days on average to finish manufacturing customer orders. The company takes three to eight days to move the finished products from its manufacturing plant to the warehousing department ready for shipment. In total, the minimum time period of 15 days and maximum of 22 days are considerably more and does not add value to the supply chain. With the changing customer needs, the firm could lose its competitive advantage due to the prolonged supply chain cycle.
The second issue affecting the supply chain seems to emerge from poor communication and coordination among DEP’s departments and between the company and its customers. For instance, regardless of the fact that the warehousing department is located just a few meters away from the manufacturing division, the company consumes up to eight days to move the finished orders to the warehouse and get it ready for shipment. The prolonged shipment time is evidence of poor coordination between the two departments. As such, these internal inefficiencies could significantly reduce the time utility aspect of the company to its customers.
Thirdly, DEP seems to have poor planning and risk assessment processes. This is evident from inadequate periodic assessment of the company’s operations especially in its supply chain. Supply chain cycles must be assessed on a periodic bases in order to establish the changing business environment and customer needs. Failure to re-evaluate a company’s supply chain may lead to adverse impacts of risks such as inability to incorporate new technologies in the supply chain. From the case study, it emerges that Lippet has been relying on assessments done by O’Leary (Coyle et al. 2009) concerning DEP’s ability to deliver products within the required time threshold. However, the assessments made by O’Leary are biased since an independent evaluation of DEP’s capability by Binish exposes the inefficiencies within the company’s supply chain.
Lastly, DEP suffers from inefficiencies in its management especially in logistics department. Mr. Lippet seems to have limited knowledge in logistics management. The first instance can be deduced from the procurement of raw materials. The company seems to be compromising efficiency with cost of material acquisition.
From the records, the company awards the lowest bidder for the chemicals used in the production of polymers. As such, the lowest bidder is awarded 60 percent of the company’s business (Coyle et al. 2009). Lower costs are often achieved at the expense of delivery time.
The extended delivery time for the raw materials could therefore be attributed to the associated low costs. Secondly, Lippet seems to have limited knowledge on the performance of his docked. From the conversation with O’Leary, Lippet seems to lack knowledge on the current delivery threshold indices for DEP.

Recommendations for Retaining GARD as a Customer

DEP has no option but enhance its supply chain efficiencies if it has to retain GARD as a business partner. This is in view of the change in management especially in the logistics department. Mr. Binish has introduced revolutionary procurement and logistics methods (Coyle et al. 2009), which subjects bidders to ‘order winning criteria’.
Therefore, DEP will have to satisfy the criteria required by GARD’s new management in order to win the annual bid terms.
The first recommendation is for the company to re-train its managers especially in the logistics department on current practices. The managers would be trained on transaction elements which reflects the nature and timing of certain service requirements. These elements are subdivided into three categories. Pre-transaction element are customer service factors which emerge prior to actual transactions take place.
Transactional elements are those related to physical movement of resources and information, and are commonly concerned with logistics and distribution (Ellinger & Chapman 2011). Lastly, post-transactional elements occur after orders have been delivered to customers.
Knowledge on these elements would enhance customer service and result in an added element to order winning criteria.
Secondly, the company can reduce the total time taken to procure, manufacture and deliver products to its customers. Although the production period for the company is commendable, raw material procurement and warehousing times are a let down to the supply chain.
The procurement period should be compressed by subjecting the process to competitive bidding. As such, those suppliers that can deliver raw materials within the minimum possible time while retaining the costs within a required range should be contracted.
The time taken to move finished products to the warehousing department and prepare them for shipping should also be compressed. This can be done by enhance coordination between these departments and effective communication networks. The faster it takes a company to procure its raw materials, the faster it will manufacture and deliver customer orders.
Thirdly, DEP should control the overall supply chain costs. Supply chain costs increases due to changes in technology and rising freight costs (Ellinger & Chapman 2011). However, the company can use appropriate metrics in controlling such costs such that the costs do not fall outside the industry range.
Metrics provide the benchmark under which a business can measure how successfully it achieves its set goals and objectives. As such, DEP can use industry metrics in order to gauge its position in the industry and devise means of leveraging itself.
For instance, the company can calculate its delivery performance as the total number of products delivered in full and on time based on a commit date.
Lastly, the company should address the issue of poor communication systems within its departments and even streamline its information system with its customers such as GARD. As such, some of the changes that Lippet should implement should be geared at improving the performance cycle in its supplies and deliveries (Langfield-Smith & Smith 2005).
In order for the departments to relay information in real time, the company should adopt and implement a management information system. This will interconnect the procurement, production, warehousing, and marketing and distribution departments among themselves and to company suppliers and customers.
Incorporating MIS in ordering and delivery processes will ensure that the production department is informed of a customer order directly from the customer in real time.
Recommendation to Implement
Of the recommendations mentioned above, DEP should train its managers on the emerging trends in the logistics and customer care industry. Training the employees on logistics and customer care will provide knowledge that can be used to address the other issues emerging from the supply chain cycle. As such, the managers will be able to control transactions costs, compress the total cycle time and increase customer service to GARD.
Conclusion
The power of brands is rapidly declining in many markets and companies are finding it increasingly difficult to coin their competitive advantage based on product characteristic modification.
However, business organizations can use logistics and customer care window to add value to their products and thus increase their competitive advantage. This essay analyzes a case study with a logistics management and customer care lens.

References
1. Bowersox, D. J., Closs, D. J., Cooper. M. B. & Bowersox, J. C. 2013, Supply Chain Logistics Management, 4th edn, McGraw-Hill Irwin, New York.
2. Campbell, J. & Sankaran, J. 2005, ‘An inductive framework for enhancing supply chain integration’, International Journal of Production Research, vol. 43, no. 16, p. 3325.
3. Christopher, M. 2010, Logistics and supply chain management, Financial Times/Prentice Hall, New York.
4. Ellinger, A. E. & Chapman, K. 2011, ‘Benchmarking leading supply chain management and logistics strategy journals’, International Journal of Logistics Management, The, Vol. 22, no. 3, p. 403-419.
5. Gotzamani, K., Longinidis, P. & Vouzas, F. 2010, ‘The logistics services outsourcing dilemma: quality management and financial performance perspectives’, Supply Chain Management: An International Journal, Vol. 15, no. 6, p. 438-453.
6. Coyle, J. J., Langley, Jr., S. J., Gibson, B. J., Novack, R.A. and Bardi, E. J. 2009, Supply Chain Management a Logistics Perspective, 8th edn, South-Western Cengage Learning, Mason.
7. Waters, D. 2010, Global logistics: New directions in supply chain management, Kogan Page Publishers, London.
8. Clements, M.D. 2009, ‘How Buyers and Sellers Value B2B Relationships: A Relationship Value Continuum for Internet Based Exchange’, Journal of Internet Business, Vol. 1, no. 6, p. 56 – 81.
9. Langfield-Smith, K. & Smith, D. 2005, ‘Performance Measures in Supply Chains’, Australian Accounting Review, Vol. 15, no. 1, p. 39-54

NB: This essay was sent to us by a student. This paper was not written by our writers (but may have been modified for publishing purposes)

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Definition of The Time Value of Money

Time value of money is an accounting concept that values the current worth of a dollar more than its future equivalent. As such, time value of money states that the value of a unit dollar to be received at a future date is less than the value of a similar unit at hand today (Bianco, Nelson, and Poole, 2010).

Short Paragraph on Money

Preference of money at current date is influenced by the fact that money to be received at a future date is subjected to various factors such as inflation, default risk and interest rate fluctuations. There are four concepts under the time value of money:

Future Value of a Sum (FV)

The future value of a sum of money is defined as the amount of money that an individual will obtain at a future date if the present sum is invested for the period up to that future date at a given interest rate.

Therefore, the future value of a single sum is the sum of the present value of that amount and the compound interest that will accrue for the period until that future date. The future value of a sum is computed using the following formula:

Future Value (FV) = Present Value (PV) × (1 + i)ⁿ

From the formula, I is the rate of interest per compounding period, and n is the number of periods.

For instance, an amount of $20,000 invested of January 1, 2010 at an interest rate of 8% compounded annually.

The future value of the investment on Dec 31, 2013, given quarterly compounding will be given as follows.

PV = $20,000

n = 4 × 4 = 16

i = 8% /4 = 2%. Therefore, future value will be

FV = $20,000 (1 + 2%)¹⁶

= $20,000 * 1.3727851

= $27,455.71

The future value of a sum is used to compute the amount of money that an investor will attain at a given future date when invested now as a lump sum, considering the time value of money (Bianco, Nelson, and Poole, 2010).

Present value of a sum

The present value of a sum of money is the amount that equates the sum invested and the compound interest earned on the investment with the face value, if invested at a specific rate of interest on a given date (Damodaran, 2010).

It is the sum obtained after discounting the future value at a given rate of interest. The present value of a future sum is calculated using the following formula:

For instance, given a future value of $27,455 to be received on December 31, 2013 at an interest rate of 8% compounded quarterly, we can find the present value as follows:

FV = $27,455

n = 16

i = 2%

PV = $27,455 / (1.02)¹⁶

= 27,455 / 1.3727851

= $20,000

Present value computations assist business organizations when making capital budgeting decisions. It indicates whether making an investment produces positive present value on returns.

Present Value of an Annuity

An annuity is a series of equal payments that are evenly made after specific periods of time. Therefore, the present value of an annuity is the total sum of all periodic payments discounted at a certain rate of interest to reflect the time value of money (Damodaran, 2010).

It is the amount that will equate the sum invested and compound interest earned with the face value of each payment and the product of the number of periodic payments.

The present value of an ordinary annuity is calculated using the following formula:

Where R is the fixed periodic payment; i the interest rate per compounding period; and n =the number of compounding periods.

For example, the present value of an annuity of $500 payments made at the end of each month for the year 2011, at an annual interest rate of 12% will be calculated as follows:

R = $500

n = 12

i = 12% / 12 = 1%

PVA = $500 * (1 – (1.01^-12) / 1%

= 500 * 0.11255/0.01

= 500 * 11.255

= $5,627.54.

The present value of the annuity concept helps business lenders determine whether it is viable to advance their funds to debtors.

Future Value of Annuity

The future value of an annuity is the sum of face value, periodic payments and the total interest earned compounded on all the periodic payments up to the future value point (Damodaran, 2010).  It is the value of periodic payments enhanced at a certain rate of interest for each period to reflect the time value of money.

Future value of an ordinary annuity of a sum is calculated using the following formula:

Future value of an annuity is used by investors to determine the total value of their periodic investments at a future date, such as pension or insurance contributions.

Importance of the Time Value of Money Concept

Time value of money is often used in financial decision making models to maximize the economic welfare of shareholders (Tirole, 2009). As such, the concept is used in investment decision making and financing decisions.

Investment decision involves optimal allocation of capital for long-term investment projects. Since future cash flows from a given project are not equal, investors often discount them into present value for ease of comparison.

Importance of Money in Life

As such, the returns on investment of a project can be used to appraise its viability. Time value of money is also used by investors in securities such as stocks and bonds (Bianco, Nelson, and Poole, 2010).

In financing decisions, managers use the time value of money concept to design an optimal capital structure and getting finances from sources with the least cost of financing. Different sources of financing can also be compared with this concept to determine the best alternative that has the minimal cost possible and maximum benefit.

• Management Case Study Analysis

Bibliography on Value of Money Essay

1. Bianco, C.A., Nelson, D.T. & Poole, B.S. 2010, “Teaching Time Value of Money”, The Business Review, Cambridge, 16, no. 1, pp. 25-31.
2. Damodaran, A. 2010, Applied corporate finance. Wiley.
3. Tirole, J. 2009, The theory of corporate finance. Princeton University Press.

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Research on McDonald’s

This marketing research proposal for McDonald’s beverage line seeks to highlight on a new product line that the company can introduce for the market.

The information presented in this report, therefore, illustrates a marketing gap that the company can take advantage of and expand its business, especially in the premium beverage line.

Based on the marketing models and theories used in the report, it is recommended that the company pursue this strategy as it is an opportunity that could be grabbed by its competitors.

Key Background Issue at McDonald’s

McDonald’s is the leading food-service retailer serving more than 52 million customers with over 30,000 local restaurants and 100 countries around the world. However, the company offers a variety, yet limited menu (Gherasim, 2011).

The restaurants are either operated by the company directly or franchised to individual entrepreneurs. Despite the increasing success that the company has experienced in recent years, McDonald’s has increasingly faced competition from premium coffee makers such as Starbucks and caribou, particularly since the introduction of the ‘leed’ coffee and premium coffee blends.

In view of this, the company must explore market gaps in the beverage segment and offer competitive products to counter the competition posed by rivals (Mattern, 2011).

New Products at McDonald’s

Although the company is not commonly viewed as a preferred coffee house, McDonald’s can enhance its position and attract many consumers who love coffee. However, the company is well known for its value-products that it offers for the market.

Introducing premium or top brand coffee varieties at relatively lower prices could greatly increase the sales and market share for the company. The primary research indicated that many consumers would buy cappuccino, latte, and mocha if it were offered at McDonald’s.

Therefore, this marketing research report deems it fit for the company to expand its premium beverage line by offering these products. There exists a relationship between gender and the chances of an individual purchasing a specific type of coffee (such as mocha and latte) at the restaurant.

People who have purchased other types of coffee drinks at McDonald’s are also likely to consume these proposed drinks (Mattern, 2011). Thus, the company could conduct its marketing strategy based on the Segmentation, Targeting, and Positioning (STP) model.

STP for Cappuccino, Mocha and Latte

In order to develop an effective marketing strategy, McDonald’s should understand its target customers. Understanding the customer well will assist the company in effectively communicating to its market.

McDonald’s should segment the proposed products according to demographic, behavioral and psychographic bases. Segmentation is grouping of customers with similar characteristics is a pool so that their needs can be adequately met.

The coffee brands should be segmented according to students, family and gender. Given that men are more likely to consume cappuccino than women, while women prefer mocha and latte, the company should structure their marketing strategies such that women are well served with mocha and latte, while men provided with cappuccino.

More customers can also be attracted to the new products if the company emphasizes on the targeting technique. In order to appeal to customers and achieve a sustainable advantage over competitors, the company should introduce these products with low levels of sugar and cholesterol.

There is a significant number of consumers that prefer diet beverages (Mons, et al., 2011) and therefore, targeting this segment with low glucose and cholesterol products will be a big boost for the company.

Given that the company is already known as value-restaurant, using this targeting technique, especially for the mocha and latte brands, will increase sales and market share.

The company should apply new positioning methods to create a positive perception in the minds of consumers about these products. Positioning helps the company increase its market share by letting customers understand the uniqueness of a product relative to competitors’ offer (Hsu, 2011).

McDonald’s can use healthy messages in advertising for these new coffee variants. The adverts for the company should therefore carry all healthy qualities and benefits of the coffee variants.

Marketing Mix at McDonald’s

By using the STP model for the new product, the company will thus use the 7 Ps of marketing mix to stage a comprehensive marketing campaign for cappuccino, latte and mocha variants. The following is an outline of the marketing mix:

Product – McDonald will introduce cappuccino, latte and mocha as the main product for the competitive market. These products have not been offered by the company and therefore are unique. Therefore, the marketing campaign will focus on these products.

Price – The Company has a rich history of providing high-end products at value-prices. The new product should therefore be introduced at prices relatively lower than that which competitors’ such as Starbucks offer.

Promotion – The prime focus for the company is to target students and middle-aged working class individuals. The marketing team could introduce schemes of winning raffles and coupons especially for couples. This will enable both the target groups to frequent the restaurant.

Place – McDonald’s has a good network of restaurants throughout the country and in the international market (Mattern, 2011). Although the initial campaign will be done in selected local outlets, the success of the campaign will be a benchmark for rolling a nationwide and international marketing campaign.

People – The employees of the company will be used in the product promotion and awareness. The abled staff at McDonald’s is friendly and their excellent customer service will be handy in the marketing campaigns.

Process – Food processing procedure at McDonald’s is completely transparent. The nature of these new product variants is such that they can be prepared instantly while the customer is waiting and ‘seeing’ the process. This will allow the customers to judge the production standards and hygiene involved (Burton, Parker, and Lawley, 2012).

Physical evidence – The Company has always focused on the cleanliness and hygiene of its production and selling processes. This has given it a competitive edge, which will be helpful in marketing the new product variants.

Conclusion

The marketing research report has highlighted the marketing opportunity that McDonald’s can take advantage and counter the increasing competition from other players in the industry.

Since the company is well known for its value-products, introducing cappuccino, latte and mocha as new variants of coffee in the market will enable the company to gain a competitive advantage.

McDonald’s Marketing Research strategies, based on the Segmentation, targeting, and Positioning (STP) model will enable the company to tailor the products in the market. During its marketing campaign, the company will use its 7 Ps of marketing mix to appeal to all the niches in the market.

Bibliography on McDonald’s Marketing Research

1. Burton, P., Parker, G., and Lawley, B. 2012, 42 Rules of Product Marketing: Learn the Rules of Product Marketing from Leading Experts from Around the World. Super Star Press.
2. Gherasim, T. 2011, “An Approach Of The Product View Through The Perspective Of The Marketing – Mix”, Economy Transdisciplinarity Cognition, 14, no. 1, pp. 402-409.
3. Hsu, Y. 2011, “Design innovation and marketing strategy in successful product competition”, The Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing, 26, no. 4, pp. 223-236.
4. Mattern, J. 2011, Ray Kroc: McDonald’s Restaurants Builder. Checkerboard Books.
5. Mons, F.S., Haugland, S.A., Grønhaug, K. & Hammervoll, T. 2011, “Marketing strategy and customer involvement in product development”, European Journal of Marketing, 45, no. 4, pp. 513-530.

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Homicide Thesis Statement

Criminology is a branch of social science concerned with investigating crime and criminal activities. This report intends to investigate the homicide case presented. As such, the report starts by establishing probable suspects that could have been involved in the murder case.

The report then discusses what could have been the motive behind the homicide. In discussing the reasons for the murder, this essay uses various criminology theories and hypotheses to explain the case.

The Offender: Criminal Career

The criminal activity victim is said to be a psychologist in his mid-twenties. He was a shy individual with an introverted personality since he would keep to himself and talked little with other people. Introverts are known to keep to themselves and only open up whenever they are under influence or they want to communicate important issues. The victim’s personality could have been shaped by his career as a psychologist. Over the past few months prior to the homicide incident, the victim had frequented the bar and thus could have been earmarked by the perpetrator of the crime.

From the information provided by one of the homicide department detectives, there were a few people who expressed their dislikes for the victim, although they did not express their feelings vocally. Since he was an introvert, it is hard to tell who these people were as he did not disclose his issues to anybody in social gatherings.

Therefore, these individuals (who had expressed their dislikes for the victim) could be the first suspects for the murder. However, there needs to be substantial evidence that could link their dislike for the victim to the homicide incident (Maguire, Morgan & Reiner, 2012).

Which type of homicide was involved here?

The victim was shot three times; one shot was aimed directly on his head while the other two were directed to the middle body. From the sequence of events, it is highly probable that the people who were seen chatting with the victim a few moments before the crime was committed could have lured him into the restroom before they could shoot at him.

Since the restroom attendant was yet to arrive, one hour after the crime was committed, the perpetrators must have known the operating schedule for the bar and thus wanted to finish their mission long before the restroom attendant could arrive.

Therefore, the offender is well versed with the operations of the bar as well as the victim’s schedule. The crime was not a spontaneous one, but rather a well planned and executed work.

The close range shots and the body dragged to block the entrance to the restroom indicate that the offender did a clean job to ensure that there was limited evidence that could be trace to his involvement.

The main homicide suspect is thus one of the people who engaged in conversation with the victim or all them since they could have acted in such manner in order to avoid any suspicion of the impending crime.

The suspect first of all should have arrived earlier in the bar before their target could arrive. Since they had studied his personality and mastered his drinking behavior, they would wait until he has taken the first drink before approaching him.

While timing the arrival of the restroom attendant, the criminals maximized the use of the restroom before the attendant could arrive to his work station. The victim was then led into the restroom for a ‘quick discussion’ concerning a certain issues, may be relating to his work at the hospital or his expected educational advancement.

Armed with the .22 caliber pistol, the suspects could have immediately shot the victim before any alarm could be raised. They seems to be professional shooters since they purposely chose the restroom because of the room’s proximity to the noise.

This would prevent the gun noise from being detected by other revelers. Also, the wooden floor acted as sound proof and would absorb most of the sound coming from the shot.

Since the restroom had only one entry and exit point, the suspect (s) could have dragged the dying victim towards the door and closed it slowly behind them, so that no one would readily smell the blood or sight that spilt on the floor.

Therefore, the individuals sited conversing with the victim a few minutes before his death could be the primary suspects for the homicide incident.  The perpetrators are experienced sharpshooters and could have been hired to eliminate the victim.

Reasons for Committing the Crime

Why was the crime committed? In criminology, it is critical to establish the motives behind any crime committed as this will assist criminologists in determining crime trends and how to avoid such activities.

In an effort to determine different reasons as to why people commit crime, many theories have been advanced, either by individual postulators or collectively, as they seek to determine the best most appropriate explanation for criminal activities.

In trying to ascertain the reasons why the homicide in case study was committed, we are going to subject our analysis to various theories in criminology that explains why people commit crime. There is a number of alternate theories and hypotheses that can be used to explain why people kill.

The Byproduct Hypothesis

The Byproduct Hypothesis is an evolutionary explanation of why people kill proposed by Daly and Wilson in 1988. According to Daly and Wilson homicide can be seen as an overactive mistake and a byproduct of psychological adaptations that are designed for no-lethal outcomes.

For instance, a husband may end up killing his wife because of unfaithfulness. In this case, the theorists have argued that the male mechanism for jealousy and the control for his mate may slip leading to the man killing the wife.

As such, homicide is an over-reactive mistake and a byproduct of mechanisms meant to serve other functions. When this explanation is put in the case context, an individual may commit homicide because there are some other interests that they are trying to protect, but the person who is killed happens to stand in the way between the people trying to achieve this goal.

In their 1995 journal article, Wilson and Daly argue that using homicides as a form of an evolved psychology of interpersonal conflict should not be seen as a presupposition that killing in itself is adaptive. This would mean that homicide is neutral in terms of selection.

When we apply this hypothesis to our case study, we can state that the assailants probably had intentions of persuading the victim into agreeing into certain terms or conditions but the victim was reluctant to yield to their persuasions.

This could have led the offender(s) to resort to extreme measures such as shooting the victim so that he could agree to their propositions. From the investigative details, there seems to be no signs of intensive struggle, meaning that both the offender and victim were initially in a negotiation process but due to the breakdown in negotiations, the offender was forced to pull the trigger. Therefore, the killing could have been an overactive mistake and a byproduct of psychological adaptations that were designed for non-lethal outcomes.

However, there have been critics of this hypothesis as a means through which an act of homicide can be explained. For instance, (Carruthers, Laurence & Stich, 2004) states that Daly and Wilson did not address the relationship between behavior with negative selective consequences and evolutionary history.

Nonetheless, the critics propose two possible alternative explanations. Firstly, the overall benefits of psychological adaptations that result into homicide as a byproduct have outweighed costs of killing over the evolutionary period.

Secondly, selection has resulted in the elimination of homicide as a byproduct in instances where it is considered too costly to kill. This hypothesis is closely related to the evolved goal hypothesis.

Evolved Goal Hypothesis of homicides

The Evolved Goal Hypothesis is another evolutionary explanation to homicide and states that human beings have their evolved specific goals that are associated with certain quest for productive success.

• These goals are not generalized goals but rather specific goals such as to strive for status.
• Such goals are achieved through the use of evolved problem solvers which figures out the means of achieving these goals.
• The strong form of this hypothesis states that killing or homicide is not the main reason behind the achievement of these goals, but an individual would commit homicide if it is apparent that it is the only means through which their goals can be achieved.
• On the other hand, the weak form of this hypothesis postulates that there may be some form of psychological adaptations specifically for homicide, such as the strong desire to kill certain persons.
• However, the processes that are undergone in determining whether or not to kill is accomplished through general problem solving mechanism.

Although this hypothesis seems to be more applicable to the case under consideration, little literature has been written on the same. This presents limited information on the hypothesis and its applicability. Similarly, the limited information on the hypothesis makes it hard to determine the criticisms and counter-criticisms levelled against the hypothesis. However, putting the hypothesis into perspective results into credible scenario.

The victim could have had individuals either at his place of work or at the social joint. Because of job-related rivalry, the offender could have perceived them victim as a potential threat to their career advancement. As such, the only means through which the offender could secure his position was to either persuade the victim to back down or be eliminated. This explains the reason why the victim had to be taken into a secluded place for the purposes of negotiation before the worse could be done.

The Choice Theory applied in Criminology

The choice theory arises from classical school of criminology, which holds reasons why individuals commit crime. According to this theory, people freely choose all their actions guided by their behaviors.

As such, motives such as greed, need, revenge, anger, lust, thrill-seeking jealousy and vanity are all expressions of free will and personal choice. Secondly, this theory advances that choices made can be controlled by fear of punishment.

As such, an individual will weigh the potential benefits and costs resulting from a criminal activity, and that most people find the risk of being punished is not worth the pleasure they would derive from committing a crime.

Lastly, the more swift, certain and severe consequences resulting from the criminal act, the greater will be its ability to control a criminal behavior.

In the world of criminal justice, choice theories are associated with the development of policies intended to control the behavior of criminals. In this perspective, policies such as get-tough tactics, problem-oriented policing, police crackdowns, selective incapacitation and deterrence strategies.

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As such, criminologists such as Siegel state that choice theories are popular since they do not encourage rehabilitation as a cornerstone for criminal justice. There is an increasing number of choice theorists who regards rehabilitation as a waste of time and taxpayers money.

Their central argument is that criminals make their choices as to whether to engage in the heinous activities and thus they commit such offences knowing their consequences just too well. Siegel (2006) notes that it is a waste of time to rehabilitate a cold, hardened criminal.

When we reason within this perspective, it emerges that the assailant had clear motive to eliminate the victim. This theory provides that the person committing a crime does not need to have sound reasons as to why they does so, but nay chose to act according to their choice.

The assailant could thus have acted in order to avenge for something the victim had done against him. The murderer must have evaluated the cost associated with the action versus the benefits that he would derive from doing so.

The benefits must have outweighed the costs since the offender seems to have been sure that the act would be concealed.

The Conflict Theory of Criminology

The conflict theory of crime is s social structured approach to criminology and charges crime as a result of conflicts between various social classes. Thus, the conflict theory is based on the perspective that causes of crime are economic and social forces operating within a society.

This is aggravated by the view that criminal justice system operates on behalf, and for the benefit of the rich and powerful social elites with policies being developed and enforced to contain the poor. According to the proponents of the conflict theory, the focus of legal standards established by the elites is on separating them from the have not so that the latter do not steal from the former.

This is evidenced from the manner in which street crimes, including minor monetary ones, are severely punished relative to large scale financial crimes that are treated with more leniency. The manner in which such justice is applied results in a conflict between the higher and the lower social classes.

The conflict theory of criminology suggests that laws developed and enforced within a society emerge out of conflict rather than a consensus.

• It states that there are no fundamental differences between criminals and the general population and that laws are developed by a group that is in power with an intention to control those who are not in power.
• Further, the criminology theory of conflict disdains the premise that the society can clearly be subdivided into criminals and non-criminals and terms such notions as a dualistic fallacy.
• Theorists who align their views with this theory state that distinguishing criminals from the general society should be guided by the societal reactions to those individuals who deviate from the generally accepted societal norms.
• In general terms, conflict theorists argue that those members of the society who are in destitute circumstances are more likely to be labelled as criminals relative to those majorities or more convenient individuals.

The conflict theory is extended by critical theory, which was developed in an attempt to explain the root cause of contemporary social disorder in 1970s (Carruthers, Laurence & Stich, 2004). According to the critical theory of criminology, criminal behavior in the society results from economic and social inequalities within a society. As such, this theory postulates that crime cannot be tackled efficiently and be eliminated within a capitalist system. Just like the conflict theory of criminology, the critical theory argues that minorities and those individuals who are in destitute circumstances are more likely to be labelled as criminals than the majority.

This theory can be used to understand the general causes of crime and criminal activities within a given geographical region. However, subjecting the case under study to this theory will yield minimal information about the cause of the death. It is most probable that the suspect and the victim belongs to the same social class, or in any case there is a deviation, then it is slight. Therefore, this theory has limited application to the case.

Although these theories explain the causes of criminal activities in the society as a result of inequality in resource distribution within a social set up, it is inadequate to explain why an individual would wrong another person within the same social status. These theories would suffice in explaining certain actions, such as civil rights protesters being locked up in cells because they are threat to social orders. However, the conflict and critical theories of criminology cannot be used to explain why a person would murder his family member or a person from the same social class.

Strain Theory for Criminology and Homicide

In criminology, strain theory states that an individual may be forced into committing a crime because of the existing social structures within the society. Strain theory suggests that an individual may turn into a criminal when he or she is strained or when they are unable to achieve the goals of the society.

According to this theory, strain may be either structural or individual oriented. Structural strain refers to the manner in which the society shapes and affects the manner in which an individual perceives his or her needs.

For instance, if certain social structures are inadequate, an individual will change his or her perceptions as to the means or opportunities arising from such structures. Individual strains refer to the frictions and pains suffered by a person as s/he looks for alternatives to satisfying their needs.

For instance, if the societal goals become very significant to the individual, achieving such goals will be more important than the means adopted to achieve them.

In explaining the strain theory Robert Merton states that anomie is very similar to the meaning of the word strain and proposes that strain is a situation in which societies brings to bear strain to persons that leads to rule-breaking.

In accordance, this pressure is caused by the discrepancy between culturally defined goals and the institutionalized means of achieving these goals. The theory advances that the institutionalized means of achieving societal goals are education and hard work.

This means than an individual who does not undergo the relevant education system through hard work is incapable of fulfilling these goals and is labeled as lazy or defective.

Merton further argues that the problem with this system within a society is that the legitimate procedures of achieving material success are not evenly distributed and that individuals from upper social class have considerably more access to legitimate means than those economically disadvantaged.

As a result, a strain is developed within the disadvantaged class in which some strategies must be adopted in order to deal with the pressures brought to bear on them.

Although the strain theory of criminology continues to plan a critical role in sociological theorization of crime, critics have identified various limitations to the theory. Albert Cohen provides the first criticism by claiming that there are many criminal activities that are non-utilitarian, negativistic and malicious.

This indicates that not all crimes cannot be explained using this theory. For instance, although the theory can explain theft and fraud based on innovation, it is inefficient in explaining youth-related crimes which are committed for social status rather than material gains. The theory also fails to address issues such as race and gender.

Just like the byproduct theory explains, the strain theory could as well be applied to the case to explain the motive for the commission of this crime. Due to societal structures that makes it hard for some individuals to achieve their goals, these individuals may be forced to seek other means of achieving these goals.

Accordingly, the offender must have perceived the victim as a means through which he or she could achieve his or her objectives. In this view, the offender must have been hired to commit the said violence.

The manner in which the crime was committed and the limited evidence available to trace the suspect indicates that the suspect must be a trained sharpshooter. This is evidenced by the bullet shot in the head of the suspect and the additional two in his middle body to ensure that he was actually dead before the suspect flew.

Therefore, the goal of the assailant should have been to achieve some financial breakthrough, and this could be achieved by engaging in assassin activities.

Additional Theories not appropriate for the Case

We have explained appropriate theories that can be used to explain the motive of the assailants. However, there are other criminology theories which explain the reasons why people commit crime but cannot be used to explain the motive behind this particular case study. This section will discuss some of these theories and explain why they are not appropriate for the case.

The first theory under consideration is the Developmental Life Course theory. According to this theory, crime causation is considered in the lens of a development process that starts before an individual is born and continues throughout the life course.

As such, this theory postulates that there are some inherent individual factors that interact with the societal factors to determine the time when a person starts criminal activities, the lengths with which the crime will be committed and the time when the person will cease engaging in criminal career.

In this perspective, the key theoretical issues regard the continuity and change in crime. Some theories within this focus predicts continuity in crime across the criminal’s life course, others predict continuity for some offenders while others state that the criminal activities would continue or even change for some offenders (Gill, 2011).

Although this theory states that the reason why an individual would engage in a criminal activity is because they were probably born criminals. This theory may explain why some individuals commit crime but it would be far-fetched if we used this theory to explain the reason why the crime under consideration was committed. From the discussion provided in this paper and the case data provided in the case brief, it is quite clear that the offenders had well-organized motive to execute the victim and this was influenced by underlying factors, some of which are also discussed within this report.

The other important theory that can be considered when discussing criminology is Feminism Criminology theory. Crime cannot be well understood without taking gender into consideration. Feminist criminologists accentuate the subsidiary characterization of women in the society as far as criminal activities are concerned (Carruthers, Laurence & Stich, 2004).

Under this school of thought, women are still underrated and considered as inferior relative to their male counterparts and are not full accepted socially as equals to men. Crime is shaped by different social experiences such as power, and most of these experiences have been associated to the male society although a considerable number of women are in power. In the same measure, men would commit crime to show their symbol of masculinity, that they are ‘men’ as the society regards them. On the other hand, feminist criminologists argue that female criminal behavior and their representations is associated with mere commodity for sexual exchange in the industry.

Criminology Research paper Topics

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Although this is a significant theory that can be used to explain crime patterns in the society, the theory does not provide any direct link to our case analysis. It is probable that a woman could have been involved in the homicide case, but there are a limited aspect that links the murder to a lady involvement.

Similarly, bars are associated with alcoholism and sexual activities, and the victim could have been lured into the restroom by a lady. But the information provided indicates that the ladies restroom was far away from the point where the body of the victim was found.

Conclusion on Homicide Research Essay

In this report Argumentative Essay on Homicides, we have analyzed the information provided and tried to ascertain who could have been involved in the perpetration of the homicide. We have also discussed various criminology theories pertaining to the motive for committing criminal activities and related these theories to the case. In so doing, we established the reason why the offender could murder the victim. There are other theories that explain the motives behind criminal activities, although they do not directly explain the reasons why the offender committed the crime in the case study. These theories have also been discussed in the last parts of this report.

In so doing, we established the reason why the offender could murder the victim. There are other theories that explain the motives behind criminal activities, although they do not directly explain the reasons why the offender committed the crime in the case study. These theories have also been discussed in the last parts of this report.

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Bibliography on Criminology Homicide Essay Sample and Topics

1. Carruthers, P., Laurence, S. & Stich, S. (Eds.). (2004). The Structure of innate Mind. New York: Oxford University Press.
2. Gill, C. E. (2011). Missing links: how descriptive validity impacts the policy relevance of randomized controlled trials in criminology. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 7(3), 201-224.
3. Maguire, M., Morgan, R., & Reiner, R. (Eds.). (2012). The Oxford handbook of criminology. Oxford University Press.
4. Siegel, L. (2006). Criminology (9th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.

The post Criminal Law Homicide Essays, Thesis, Topics & Questions appeared first on Essaylancer®.

Station Nightclub Fire Facts

• The pyrotechnics were set off a few seconds before the show could begin but accidentally ignited the soundproofing polyurethane foam located on the ceiling and walls proximate to the performing stage.
• A few minutes after the ignition, the whole building was set ablaze with over 430 revelers inside.
• Approximately 100 people were killed in the inferno, over 50 were injured during the stampede while over 200 escaped with minor injuries.
• The egress was slowed by a large number of people trying to escape through the main entrance.
• As a result of the worst fire tragedy in the last decade, there have been many questions raised on the efficacy of fire combating techniques within buildings and the ability of extinguishers to salvage the most out of such a situation.

Station Nightclub Fire Report

With comprehensive research on “The Station Nightclub” incidence, this paper seeks to address various issues that pertain to the subject.

As such, the paper evaluates if the effects of the incident on live performances, especially with the use of pyrotechnics were permanent and whether it resulted in the development of legal codes to be applied by such joints.

This paper also discusses the effects of the fire incident on structural requirements of nightclubs, especially the painting or obstruction of windows and other emergency exit requirements.

Lastly, the paper evaluates the legal framework relative to the fire incidences in nightclubs; assessing legal provisions that existed before the Station Nightclub fire incidence and those regulatory frameworks that were developed after the accident.

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Background of the Nightclub

In order to effectively assess the impacts of the fire and whether the incidence was an accident due toigence, it is imperative that we establish the underlying facts about the nightclub and its operations.

The nightclub building was significantly aged since it was built in 1946 and had undergone several remodels and renovations as it changed ownership.

The rate of fire spread was accelerated due to the fact that the structure was a single-story wooden building of approximately 4,480 square feet.

Patrons would enter the club through the main entrance that was located on the northern side of the building.

Although there were other entrances and exit points to the structure, very few people were aware of them since the west-side opening which was adjacent to the performance stage was assumed to be the entry for VIP and performing artists.

There were also large windows on the north side of the building on both sides of the main entrance.

The third door was also situated on the eastern wing of the structure, while the fourth one was fitted in the kitchen, but only the employees of the club were aware of this exit point.

On the fateful night, the Great White band was in attendance and was warming up for a live performance. As part of their show, the band had a tendency of including pyrotechnic devices. These were located on either side of the fore-platform.

The stunt was such that the pyrotechnics be ignited a few seconds before the band hit the stage in order to liven up the occasion.

The ignited pyrotechnics provided intense heat that was enough to ignite polyurethane soundproofing foam, which was the main component of walls and ceiling just adjacent to the stage.

The fast-spreading fire caught the wooden frames and aggravated the consumption. According to the NIST final report, an estimated 95 percent of the fuel load consisted of the wooden structure and paneling (NIST Final Report, 2005).

Use of Pyrotechnics in Live Performance

The Station Nightclub fire incidence was largely attributed to the use of pyrotechnics and the structural composition of the club, which exacerbated the rate of fire spread throughout the building.

Pyrotechnics is a technique of using materials that can undergo self-sustained exothermic chemical reactions which results in the production of heat, light, smoke, or gas and sound.

In the entertainment industry, pyrotechnics involves the use of fireworks, which is meant to add sparkle and glamour to an event (Harrington, Biffl & Cioffi, 2005).

Although the fire was largely linked to the use of pyrotechnics in the club, little blame was shifted to the use of these techniques, and the materials are still largely used in entertainment schemes.

The pyrotechnics used during the live performance was initiated by Daniel Biechele, the Great White band’s tour manager.

The manager used three sets of gerbs to create spray sparks approximately 4.5 meters high for 15 seconds before the band could enter the stage.

Two gerbs were positioned on either side of the stage at 45 degrees while the third one was placed at the center of the stage pointing straight up.

Initially, people inside the hall thought that the flames resulting from gerb sparks were part of the display but later realized that that the situation was growing out of control.

Approximately twenty seconds after the pyrotechnics ended, the band stopped playing on realizing that the ceiling had already started catching fire with heat and smoke filling the concert hall.

The official license capacity for the club was a maximum of 404 persons whereas the club had been packed with 468 people in attendance. One hundred people perished in the inferno, including the band’s lead guitarist, the event emcee, and the music DJ.

More than 50 individuals were injured either from smoke inhalation, burns or trampling. After the tragedy, the then Governor Donald Carcieri declared a moratorium against the use of pyrotechnics in clubs that held less than 300 people (Harrington, Biffl & Cioffi, 2005).

The use of pyrotechnics was permitted in entertainment spots especially nightclubs under model codes subject to prequalification of conditions and approval of authorities having jurisdiction (AHJ).

Under the NFPA Life Safety Code 101, a pyrotechnical operator is expected to submit a written plan that includes the date, time, and location of an event, and the qualifications of the director within 24 hours of the event (NFPA, 2003).

Although the nightclub was not under a model code, there were some protocols that should have been followed while using the pyrotechnics.

After the incident, fire personnel from West Warwick confirmed that apparently, neither the band nor the club had obtained the necessary state permissions to use pyrotechnics.

Although the band’s lead singer stated that they had informed the club, through the band manager, that they would be using the pyrotechnics, the club owners refuted these claims stating that they did not have any prior knowledge of the band’s intentions of using pyrotechnics.

The Issue of Egress Windows and Exit System

The importance of a swift means of egress was highlighted when victims of The Station fire were bottlenecked inside the building as they tried to escape.

As discussed in the previous section, there were a number of factors that exacerbated the tragedy including lack of fire suppression equipment, but perhaps what contributed to the high number of deaths was the lack of an efficient exit system that would have facilitated the rapid evacuation of the revelers trapped inside the facility.

The victims of the fire were trapped inside the burning building because it lacked sufficient means of egress such as egress windows.

The club patrons recognized the danger 24 seconds after the pyrotechnics had already ignited the wall and ceiling foam materials (NIST, 2005).

Approximately two-thirds of the building occupants scammed to leave the building through the main entrance which disrupted the process of evacuation. The emergency escape windows would have allowed the victims to rush outside and prevent massive deaths.

Station Nightclub Fire Report Findings

Assessment reports indicated that the building had only five exit doors with one double-swing door as the main entrance.

This was the only door that was known by patrons as the main exit point. The other exit points were either concealed or victims were not aware of their existence.

Therefore, by the time of the tragedy, there were no egress windows that could facilitate the escape of victims from the main hall.

The windows available on the entrance side of the building were used for sunning and thus were tinted to prevent direct sunlight.

Nonetheless, the windows in the sunroom and the main bar section facilitated the evacuation of nearly a third of successful people rescued.

During the 2000 period, egress windows were actually a hot topic for discussion. However, the changes to the building codes came too late to save the victims of the fire tragedy.

In the year 2000, the national building codes had been updated and required basement apartments to have a means of egress for emergency exit in case of an eventuality.

These codes were adopted a few years later to apply to other buildings such as nightclubs.

According to the Department of Fire Services codes, egress doors may remain unlocked, unbolted or unobstructed such that the door may not be opened from the inside by the use of pressure or panic hardware.

Similarly, the codes provide that tables and chairs inside the building shall be arranged such that it provides for ready access to each egress door. The isles leading to each of the designated egress doors should not measure less than 44 inches in width.

As such, the isles should not be obstructed by chairs, tables, or other objects. The exit signs and lighting as required in assembly places should be kept in proper lighting conditions at all times and installed in accordance with 780 CMR.

Structural Requirement Changes due to the Fire

The magnitude of the fire that gutted down the Station Nightclub invoked a swift response from government and non-governmental agencies including code developing bodies.

A number of actions were immediately proposed and implemented either as temporary or permanent guidelines for the entertainment organizations regarding fire emergency preparedness and safety measures.

The Standards Council of National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) developed tentative interim amendments with a view of addressing some life safety issues that were raised by the fire incidence at West Warwick.

The amendments mainly dealt with sprinklers, crowd management, occupancy levels, and means of egress.

A research was conducted on fire protection systems that had been installed by the nightclub before the fateful night and included in the report filed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST).

Station Nightclub Fire Code Changes

From the report, it can be established that the club did not have a sprinkler system, which was found to be instrumental in suppressing the spread of fire (Harrington, Biffl & Cioffi, 2005).

A computer simulation of the incidence by the NIST demonstrated that a water sprinkler system installed would have been able to contain the fire and reduce the number of deaths.

The 2003 model codes required that all new buildings be installed with sprinkler systems as a precautionary measure for combating any fire eventuality.

The Nightclub did not require to install this safety apparatus because it was exempt from the requirement, given the number of years it had been in existence.

The tentative interim amendment (TIA) approved in July 2003 a requirement that sprinklers be fitted in existing nightclub facilities venues having more than 100 occupant loads.

The board also outlined that a restriction is imposed on festival seating in existing and new facilities if the occupant load exceeded 250 unless the facility was assessed for life-safety.

Similarly, a number of recommendations and proposals for changes to existing codes were submitted to the International Code Council (ICC) during its September 2003 public hearing. These proposals were driven by experience gotten from

The Station fire incidence. Among the proposals that were approved was a requirement that all foam plastics used in constructing entertainment facilities be covered with a vinyl or textile facing in order to pass a flame spread test.

The council approved this code because of the ease with which polyurethane soundproofing materials used to cover the internal walls of The Station were ignited by pyrotechnics (Harrington, Biffl & Cioffi, 2005).

Following the massive number of victims from this incident, the State of Rhode Island also acted swiftly to re-evaluate its own building and fire codes. The state government formed a special legislative commission to hold hearings and present a report to the governor.

Following the recommendations provided by this task force, the Fire Safety Code of the State of Rhode Island was significantly amended by the Comprehensive Fire safety Act of 2003. Among the standards that were addressed by the new Act included the following:

• The use of up-to-date fire safety codes across the board and thus elimination of the umbrella clause,
• Strictly regulate the use of pyrotechnics in large social venues such as nightclubs,
• Mandate the use of sprinklers in nightclubs and all Class A and Class B places of assembly,
• Provide greater enforcement powers to fire marshals and enhance their capacity in making inspections, immediate abatement of conditions that are deemed to pose an imminent threat to the safety of the public, and inspect night clubs during their operating hours, and
• Establish a comprehensive planning requirement that will enable the state to identify weaknesses in its future approach to fire safety (Comprehensive Fire safety Act 2003).

Fire Codes Existing Prior to and after The Nightclub Incident

In 1946, when the nightclub facility was constructed, various model codes have been adopted and amended while others have been introduced.

There are numerous building and fire codes that would have reduced the number of fatalities could they have been implemented.

However, there were still other codes developed after the fire incidence to strengthen the existing model codes and prevent such tragedies from occurring over and again.

This section shall compare the codes that existed prior to the fire incident and those that were developed as a result of the tragedy.

There are two model codes: the International Building Code (IBC) 2003 and the Building Construction and Safety Code (NFPA) 2003, which should have been implemented effectively by the club’s management to reduce the severity of the tragedy.

Although this report does not primarily focus on compliance or non-compliance with these codes, it discusses the relevant models that were in existence prior to the fire and those that were implemented after the incident.

Both the NFPA and IBC provide regulation for the area in which a building should be erected and its height relative to fire and emergency rescue situations.

The IBC table 503 limits the area of Group A-2 type VB to 6,000 ft² and one story. On the other hand, the NFPA 5000 limits assembly occupancy load greater than 300 and less than 1000 individuals to 5,500 ft² and one story.

According to the report compiled by NIST, the West Warwick tax records indicated that the main floor of The Station Nightclub building was 4,484 ft² while the basement was 840 ft².

This implies that the occupancy of the building exceeded the regulatory requirements since the floor area was smaller relative to the number of patrons inside the club.

Similarly, both of these codes allow an increase in the area based on the open perimeter. However, IBC allows for an increase in the height of the building in case the building meets the sprinkler protection.

In retrospect, the task force found out that the building did not have sprinkler protection since the law did not provide for such already-established buildings but rather new constructions.

In terms of interior finishing, both NFPA and IBC regulate the nature of interior finishing materials that should be used.

Chapter 8 of the IBC and Chapter 10 of the NFPA 5000 provide that the interior finishing materials should be flame-tested in order to eliminate the possibility of using highly flammable materials.

The NFPA code chapter 16 provides that the interior finishes that are composed of wood paneling, sheathing boards, and beard board must have a flame spread rating less than or equal to 75 and a smoke development index of 450 or less (Leonard, 2010).

However, if the interior is enhanced with sprinkler protection, then the flame spread index is allowed up to 200.

The IBC regulates the use of plastic interiors, requiring that foam plastics that are used for interior finishing to have a flame spread index of not more than 75, be well labeled and have a smoke development index of less than or equal to 450.

The interior finishing of the building had wood paneling, painted gypsum, beadboard, wafer board, and ceramic tiles.

The majority of wood paneling used in the building consisted of plywood. According to tests, plywood has a flame spread test of between 70 and 160.

However, the natural aging of such materials can significantly influence its flame spread index.

IBC Section 903 requires that new constructions under group A-2 must be protected by automatic sprinkler ids any of the following requirements are exceeded:

• The fire area should be greater than 12,000 ft²
• The occupant load should be greater than 300 persons, and
• The fire area should be located other than the floor exit discharge.

On its side, the NFPA 5000 required that automatic sprinkler systems be fitted on any building with occupancy of more than 300 persons.

These model codes provide that buildings be fitted with automatic sprinkler systems based on factors such as building area, occupancy, building height, construction type, occupant load, and location relative to the exit discharge.

For new construction of the type of building under the case, the models require an automatic sprinkler for occupancy load greater than 300 persons.

The Station Nightclub building did not have an automatic sprinkler system (Leonard, 2010).

Exits

The model codes provided for the measurements, location, and operation of exit points before the tragedy struck.

According to NFPA 5000 section 11.2 and IBC section 10008.1, doors should provide a clear exit opening measuring at least 0.81 m.

The codes provide that doors shall swing in the direction of egress travel if they are meant to serve a space with more than 50 persons.

All exit doors on the building exceeded 0.81 inches and all swung in the direction of egress travel.

NFPA section 16 and IBC section 1008.1 mandate that panic hardware is fitted on doors that have latches and locks with an assembly having an occupant load greater than or equal to 100 persons.

The study conducted by NIST found that the right leaf of the front exit door did not have panic hardware. However, the door to exit number 2 was fitted with panic hardware.

Occupation Load

The models existing before the fire incident computed occupant load limits based on the floor area and egress capacity.

According to IBC section 1004.2, the occupant load capacity can be increased above the required limit if the other egress provisions are met and the load does not exceed 5 square feet per person.

These provisions are also contained in the NFPA 5000 code section 11.3.1.3.

The net space provided for by these codes excludes passageways, restrooms, and space assigned for other uses such as the space behind the kitchen and bar.

On the basis of egress capacity, factors related to the minimum clear width required for exit passageways are used. The following table provides the egress capacity provisions for both IBC and NFPA 5000 codes.

Code Changes since the Fire Tragedy

As a result of the E2 and Nightclub fire incidences, the Standards Council reviewed and issued the tentative interim amendments recommendations issued by the technical committee for the NFPA 101 Life Safety Code and NFPA 5000 Building Construction and Safety Codes 2003.

The Tentative Interim Amendments, which were effected in August 2003 had the following changes:

• Automatic fire sprinklers be fitted both in new nightclubs and existing facilities that has occupancy load more than 100,
• There should be at least one trained crowd manager for all assemblies saves for religious services. For larger crowds, there should be additional crowd managers in the ratio of 1:250,
• Facility owners should inspect exit points and ensure that they are free of any form of obstruction. They should also maintain records of each inspection,
• Prohibit festival seating if the number of persons involved exceeds 250 unless an Authority Having Jurisdiction (AHJ) has performed a life-safety evaluation. According to NFPA 101, festival seating is a form of audience accommodation in which no seating other than the ground or floor surface is provided for the audience.

Similarly, following the massive number of victims from this incident, the State of Rhode Island acted swiftly to re-evaluate its own building and fire codes.

The state government formed a special legislative commission to hold hearings and present a report to the governor.

Following the recommendations provided by this task force, the Fire Safety Code of the State of Rhode Island was significantly amended by the Comprehensive Fire safety Act of 2003.

Among the standards that were addressed by the new Act included the following:

• The use of up-to-date fire safety codes across the board and thus elimination of the umbrella clause,
• Strictly regulate the use of pyrotechnics in large social venues such as nightclubs,
• Mandate the use of sprinklers in nightclubs and all Class A and Class B places of assembly,
• Provide greater enforcement powers to fire marshals and enhance their capacity in making inspections, immediate abatement of conditions that are deemed to pose an imminent threat to the safety of the public, and inspect night clubs during their operating hours, and
• Establish a comprehensive planning requirement that will enable the state to identify weaknesses in its future approach to fire safety.

Conclusion on Station Nightclub Fire

The lessons learned from the tragic fire accident that gutted down The Station Nightclub claiming one hundred lives are that fire safety inspections and code enforcement must be prioritized within various organizations.

This paper has shown how lack of adherence to existing fire codes can be catastrophic. It emerged that untreated polyurethane foam and the unauthorized use of pyrotechnics were the main cause of the fire.

However, the incident resulted in the development of other legal codes that ensured stricter regulation of the building industry in terms of fire safety.

References on Station Nightclub Fire Facts

• Arsenault, M. (2007). Building Official: R.I code required sprinklers. The Providence Journal. Web. Comprehensive Fire Safety Act (2003)
• Harrington, D. T., Biffl, W. L., & Cioffi, W. G. (2005). The station nightclub fire. Journal of Burn Care & Research, 26(2), 141-143.
• International Building Code (2003). International Code Council, Inc., Country Club Hills.
• Leonard, B. (Ed.). (2010). Fire in the United States 2003-2007. DIANE Publishing.
• National Institute of Standards and Technology (2005). Report of the Technical Investigation of The Station Nightclub Fire (NIST NCSTAR 2: Vol. 1), Washington, DC U.S. Government Printing Office.
• NFPA 101, Life Safety Code (2003).
• NFPA Building Construction and Safety Code (2005).

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